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Regarding Scientifically Based Research Studies   The purpose of the Content Network's review tables is to organize the review teams' information regarding science research studies. The tables are works in progress; editing is in progress to streamline the data presention, and review teams are analyzing additional studies for inclusion. The table includes links to the teams' original reviews; the links are in column 1, and the original reviews are MS Word documents.

Science Topics and National Science Education Standards (NSES)  In column 4 the Content Network reviewers identify the science pedagogy topics and National Science Education Standards applicable to each study.

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Reviewers' Ratings of Research   As explained in the Science Summary page, selection of research for this database has emphasized studies meeting the definition of quality research as outlined in the federal No Child Lift Behind legislation. Remember that ratings in column 4 apply to the research design, not to the quality of the intervention studied or how powerful the method, strategy, or approach is in influencing overall student achievement. Rating levels, as illustrated by the Gold Standard pyramid, are further defined on the Definitions page.

The following rows of summaries are listed in this order:
  • First, by rating (e.g., Gold Standard)
  • Next, by filename (lowest first)
  • Last, meta-analyses

Strategy:
Concept and vee mapping

Subjects:
423 boys and 385 girls enrolled in 10th grade biology (mean age 15) from six randomly selected coeducational secondary schools in Lagos State, Nigeria.

Results:
The results indicate that concept and vee mapping increase student achievement in all three learning modes. Low, medium and high achievers all performed significantly better when using concept and vee mapping. These results suggest that the use of these graphic organizers help students learn science concepts.

Description of Strategy:
This study addresses the effect of concept and vee mapping heuristics on student achievement. The study looked at three learning modes, individual, cooperative groups, and cooperative-competitive groups. The study also wanted to determine the effect of ability level and gender on cognitive achievement.

Topics:
•

Grade Levels:
9-12

Rating:
5

Strategy:
Simulation/workbook package

Subjects:
32 high school students in grades 10 or 11 who had completed a science course other than physics (usually chemistry) divided into two groups of 16.

Results:
Students with the transient (help to develop model linkages) version did significantly better on the aggregate assessment (effect size=+.9), qualitative circuit assessment (effect size=+.9), and the quantitative circuit assessment (effect size=+2.7).

Description of Strategy:
Compare two versions of a simulation/workbook package. One involved a steady state set of models; the second involve the use of transitional models as well. The transitional models were designed to lead students to construct links between simpler to more complex models.

Study:
Lavoie.

Effects of emphasizing hypothetical-predictive reasoning within the science learning cycle on high school students' process skills and conceptual understandings in biology.

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science_9-12_13

Strategy
Use of a prediction/hypothesis discussion

Subjects:
250 tenth grade students and five teachers within one school. Majority of the students were of lower to middle socioeconomic class. Approximately equal number of boys and girls, with class sizes ranging from 22 to 28.

Results:
Significant gains were found in the experimental group in conceptual understanding and process skills ability. Most also were stronger in terms of logical thinking ability.

Description of Strategy:
This study was designed to compare the use of a prediction/hypothesis discussion prior to the use of a traditional learning cycle approach to the use of the learning cycle model only.

Topics:
• Inquiry

NSES:

Grade Levels:
9-12

Rating:
5

Study:
Von Secker & Lissitz.

Estimating the impact of instructional practices on student achievement in science.

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science_9-12_20

Strategy
Computer-assisted instruction

Subjects:
This study includes 7,642 students representing 79, 0810 students enrolled in 247 urban and suburban schools in the 30 largest metropolitan school districts . A sub-sample of 2,018 students was selected for this study.
2018 tenth graders were selected from 163 schools based on four measures:  Science achievement data, student demographic data, teacher questionnaire data, and at least four students per school in data set.

Results:
The results indicate that moving away from teacher directed instruction does not necessarily mean that inequities across student populations will be removed. Replacing teacher centered instruction with more student centered practices will not necessarily result in more learning unless students have the basic vocabulary and scientific understanding essential for engaging in meaningful individual investigation and collaborative discussion.

Description of Strategy:
This study examined the comparative effect of a teacher-centered and a student-centered approach to teaching about earth science concepts using computer-assisted instruction.

Topics:
•

NSES:

Grade Levels:
9-12

Rating:
5

Study:
Hynd, McWhorter, Phares, & Suttles.

The role of instructional variables in conceptual change in high school physics topics.

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science_9-12_27

Strategy:
Eliminating misconceptions

Subjects:
310 - 9th and 10th grade students in two Southeastern high schools randomly assigned within 26 separate classes to eight groups each using one of several combinations of instructional strategies. 52% male, 48% female. 44% White, 53% Black. ITBS average score for both schools 57 percentile.
310 participants were selected from a potential population of 520. Included were those students who, despite instruction, still held nonscientific intuitive views about the motion of objects. Excluded were those who chose not to participate, those absent for part of the study and, importantly, those, who from pretesting, already held scientifically acceptable concepts.

Results:
Of the three instructional variables, refutational text had the strongest overall effect in improving test scores. Students who saw the demonstration and read the text outperformed students who participated in all three activities. Student-to-student discussions often caused students with naïve concepts to convince others to reach erroneous conclusions.

Description of Strategy:
This study investigated three instructional variables to determine which most successfully eliminated misconceptions regarding the path of falling object from a moving airplane or hand. The three instructional variables researched were viewing a demonstration, student-to-student discussion and reading a refutational text. Refutational texts are those that are designed to make readers aware of the inadequacy of their intuitive ideas.

Topics:
•

•

NSES:

Grade Levels:
9-12

Rating:
5

Study:
Johnson and Lawson.

What are the relative effects of reasoning ability and prior knowledge on biology achievement in expository and inquiry classes?

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science_9-12_28

Strategy:
Reasoning ability versus prior knowledge

Subjects:
Community College - 366 students (Large suburban southwestern comm. college)
252 females, 124 males
Non-majors biology course

Results:
The inquiry method resulted in overall higher scores than the expository approach. Scores of students with the highest reasoning abilities (hypothetical) were identical for each type instruction. The results suggest that students would be better served by courses that teach inquiry and focus on the development of scientific reasoning and the acquisition of fewer concepts.

Description of Strategy:
Reasoning ability versus prior knowledge as a determiner of success in biology

Topics:
• Inquiry

NSES:

Grade Levels:
9-12

Rating:
5

Study:
Schwartz-Bloom & Halpin.

Integrating pharmacology topics in high school biology and chemistry classes improves performance.

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science_9-12_32

Strategy:
Use of pharmacology topics

Subjects:
Fifty experienced high school teachers (25 chemistry and 25 biology) were selected to participate in the study. They were randomly assigned to teach under experimental and control conditions. High School students from 40 public, 5 parochial and 2 military schools were involved. The schools' minority population ranged from less than 10% to over 80%. There was a mix of urban, suburban and rural schools. Although more schools were located in the NE, schools from all parts of the U.S were represented. Both upper and lower level biology and chemistry classes were represented. Usable cores were obtained from 4038 students. Teachers in the experimental group were given wide latitude as to how to implement the modules.

Results:
Data from this study demonstrates that classrooms, where three or four pharmacology modules are used, do indeed show significant improved performance in areas of basic principles in biology and chemistry over classrooms using standard textbooks.

Description of Strategy:
Use of pharmacology topics in high school biology and chemistry to improve performance in three content areas of National Science Education standards.

Topics:
•

NSES:

Grade Levels:
9-12

Rating:
5

Strategy:
Learning cycle

Subjects:
High school chemistry classes

Results:
The sequence of the phases of the learning cycle is important to student learning. The placement of the invention phase seems to impact student learning the most. The optimal placement depends on whether the content is new or review and on whether the learner is concrete/operational or formal operational.

Description of Strategy:
Learning cycle (order of phases) G = explore or gather data, I = discussion or conceptual invention phase, and E = conceptual expansion

Topics:
•

•

NSES:

Grade Level:
9-12

Rating:
5

Strategy
Conceptual Change for misconceptions

Subjects:
68 eleventh grade students

Results:
The conceptual change instruction, which explicitly dealt with students’ misconceptions, produced significantly greater achievement in the understanding of the concepts.

Description of Strategy
Conceptual Change instruction; experimental students were presented with common misconceptions through discussion before the instructional activities.

Topics:
•

NSES:

Grade Levels:
9-12

Rating:
5

Strategy
Analogies, diagrams, proportionality and factor-label

Subjects:
Six hundred ninety-nine high school chemistry students from 8 high schools representing inner city, suburban, small town, and rural areas were sampled. Data was analyzed for the 421 students who completed the year long project.

Results:
This study of the interaction of aptitude and instructional strategy showed that mathematics anxiety and proportional reasoning ability are related to student’s success in solving high school chemistry problems. According to this study, teachers can positively impact student achievement by matching the strategy to the aptitude of the students, such as using less mathematical methods, such as analogies and diagrams with students who have a high level of mathematics anxiety.

Description of Strategy
This study compared the effectiveness of four selected instructional strategies: analogies, diagrams, proportionality and factor-label for teaching high school chemistry.

Topics:
•

NSES:

Grade Levels:
9-12

Rating:
5

Strategy
Pattern of reasoning study

Subjects:
Three hundred fourteen students from general biology and general chemistry classes in Phoenix, AX were studied.

Results:
Deficiencies in reasoning skills are a cause of academic difficulties and that instruction must be designed and implemented in such a way as to help students acquire the necessary reasoning patterns.

Description of Strategy
This study was designed to determine the effect of students’ pattern of reasoning on the ability to acquire domain specific concepts. Three reasoning patterns were studied: intuitive thinkers, reflective thinkers, and transitional thinkers.

Topics:
•

NSES:

Grade Levels:
9-12

Rating:
5

Strategy  
Anchoring examples, target problems with bridging analogies.

Subjects:
N = 50 in 4 control classes - 2 teachers in 2 schools
N=82 in 5 experimental classes - 2 teachers in same school
High school physics course

Results:
Effect Size on Posttest = +2.10 in favor of experimental group.
There was a significantly greater gain by the experimental groups. The gain of the experimental groups was approximately two standard deviations greater than the control group.

Description of Strategy  
Five experimental lessons incorporating anchoring examples, target problems with bridging analogies.

Strategy
Problem-based Instruction

Subjects:
Middle class suburban
396 11th - 12th grade students, age 15-19 (mean 16.8)
59% Male
6 teachers volunteered

Results:
This study shows that students in inquiry-based science classrooms will not be disadvantaged on large-scale achievement tests.

Description of Strategy
This study examined the effect of project-based science (PBS) on student achievement as measured by the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) science test. Problem-based Instruction

Strategy
Integrated enhanced-video media, the World of Chemistry video series

Subjects:
373 first-year general chemistry students across 18 classrooms in a multi-culturally diverse metropolitan region of the East Coast.

Results:
Effect Size of Posttest of comprehensive achievement= +.9
The experimental group gains in knowledge and logical thinking were significantly greater than gains of the control group.

Description of Strategy
The integrated enhanced-video media, the World of Chemistry video series used within chemistry micro-units in high school chemistry.

Strategy
Concept mapping

Subjects:
A total of 51 (30 boys, 21 girls) grade 10 students of a demonstration secondary school in Zaria, Nigeria, formed the sample of the study. The subjects ranged in age from 14 years 5 months to 18 years, 2 months, with a mean of 16 years, 1 month.

Results:
Effect size on

The results suggest that the concept mapping strategy enhanced learning in biology more effectively than traditional expository teaching and it also reduced students’ anxiety towards the learning of biology.

Description of Strategy
This study was designed to find out 1) whether concept mapping can reduce anxiety and enhance achievement in biology; and 2) whether concept mapping was more beneficial to one gender or the other.

Description of Strategy:
HOSC Instruction (History of Science Cases)

Study:
Pankratius.

Building an organized knowledge base: concept mapping and achievement in secondary school physics.

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science_9-12_15

Strategy:
Concept mapping

Subjects:
87 high school physics students, 67% male seniors and 21% female seniors with an average age if 17. Ninety-three percent of the students planned to attend college or some other post secondary education.

Results:
The study concluded that for these sample groups that received instruction on concept mapping students scored significantly higher than groups that received standard instruction. The level of treatment (amount of concept mapping) was related to the gain in achievement. Groups that mapped concepts prior to, during, and subsequent to instruction recorded higher posttest scores.

Description of Strategy:
This study compared the achievement in secondary school physics relative to three levels of involvement of concept mapping in a unit on conservation of energy and momentum.

Topics:
• Graphic organizers

NSES:

Grade Levels:
9-12

Rating:
4

Study:
Toth, Suthers, & Lesgold.

Mapping to know the effects of representational guidance and reflective assessment on scientific inquiry.

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science_9-12_18

Strategy:
Inquiry via (a) software-based mapping and word-processor based report writing (b) reflective assessment rubrics

Subjects:
Four ninth grade science classrooms totaling 73 students taught by the same science teacher in a school for U. S. military dependents in a medium-sized city in Western Europe.

Results:
Reflection significantly enhanced the information-labeling activity in the mapping condition such that a combined effect of the two produced a significantly higher number of information pieces labeled compared to reflection with prose writing. The mapping groups recorded significantly more inferences than the prose groups. The reflective assessment users recorded significantly more inferences than those groups who did not use the rubrics for explicit reflection. The reasoning with a final conclusion scores indicated no significant difference between groups in either treatment condition. There was no significant interaction between the two treatments. Explicit reflection was most useful along with evidence mapping and fewer gains were noted when used with prose representations.

Description of Strategy:
This study addresses the effects of two methods of representational guidance to teach fundamental inquiry process skills, such as reasoning: (a) Software-based mapping of evidential consistency relationships and word-processor based report writing during scientific inquiry and (b) The use of reflective assessment rubrics in the form of specific inquiry criteria to support students’ interactions with external representations during problem-solving activities

Topics:
• Inquiry

NSES:

Grade Levels:
9-12

Rating:
4

Study:
National diffusion network staff.

Revalidation study of physics resources and instructional strategies for motivating students (PRISMS)

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science_9-12_19

Strategy:
Physics Resources and Instructional Strategies for Motivating Students (PRISMA)

Subjects:
Experiment 1- 483 students in grades 10-12 from 12 schools in Iowa during 1985-1986 (276 PRISMS and 207 control group)

Results:
Effect size on

Academic achievement gains (understanding of physics concepts and facility with science process skills) of PRISMS students are significantly greater than those of control group students in two separate studies.

Description of Strategy:
Physics Resources and Instructional Strategies for Motivating Students (PRISMA)

Topics:
•

NSES:

Grade Levels:
9-12

Rating:
4

Study:
Westbrook and Rogers.

Examining the Development of scientific reasoning in ninth grade physical science students.

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science_9-12_21

Strategy:
Learning Cycle Teaching Strategy

Subjects:
Sixty-two 9 th graders enrolled in four physical science classes in a midwestern city.

Results:
There was no significant gains among the groups on the Test of Integrated Process Skills (TIPS), but did show significant gains occurring within the group and gender classification. A significant increase in the TIPS scores fro the hypothesis-testing group (HT) and among females in the Question-Design group (QD) was indicated. The Classroom Test of Scientific Reasoning (CTSR) indicated no significant differences among the groups on the pre/posttest. There was significant gender effect; females across the three groups exhibited significantly lower mean scores on the CTSR posttest than the males.

Description of Strategy:
Learning Cycle Teaching Strategy

Topics:
•

NSES:

Grade Levels:
9-12

Rating:
4

Study:
Zeitsman & Hewson.

Effect of Instruction Using Microcomputer Simulations & Conceptual Change Strategies in Science Learning.

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science_9-12_22

Strategy:
Computer simulations with conceptual change strategies

Subjects:
Thirteen standard 8 (grade 10 USA equivalency) pupils from South Africa
Twelve freshman college physics students.

Results:
Results of this study were mixed with one result showing no effect and a second showing a significant effect.

Description of Strategy:
This study was designed to investigate the effects of instruction using computer simulations along with conceptual change strategies. Microcomputer program to address velocity misconceptions

Topics:
• Inquiry

NSES:

Grade Levels:
9-12

Rating:
4

Study:
Adamson et al.

Reformed undergraduate instruction and its subsequent impact on secondary school teaching practice and student achievement.

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science_9-12_23

Strategy:
Arizona Collaborative for Excellence in the Preparations of Teachers program (ACEPT)

Subjects:
In-service biology teachers who, as preservice teachers, had experienced from none to a considerable number of ACEPT-influenced science or math classes ( teaching experience: 1-16 years).

Results:
In a quasi-experimental study, biology teachers who had received education in biology using active student, inquiry oriented teaching based on AAAS models were in turn more likely to use a similar model in their own teaching. In addition, the pupils of these high school biology teachers did better on a biology achievement test. Across math and science, high school teachers who were exposed to the AAAS model teaching in their content courses were more likely to use active student, inquiry oriented teaching in their own teaching.

Description of Strategy:
This study looked at the Arizona Collaborative for Excellence in the Preparations of Teachers program (ACEPT) to see if it influenced how preservice teachers taught and if, in turn, their teaching improved student achievement.

Topics:
• Inquiry

NSES:

Grade Levels:
9-12

Rating:
4

Study:
Dori.

From nationwide standardized testing to school-based alternative embedded assessment in Israel: students' performance in the Matriculation 2000 project.

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science_9-12_24

Strategy:
Teaching via standardized matriculation examinations versus embedded assessment methods.

Subjects:
243 students in four heterogeneous high schools. 22 schools used Mat 2000, but only two, (School A and B) taught both chemistry and biology using Mat 2000. All students took the highest level of biology (5 units equivalent to honors biology in US). School A in High SES neighborhood, School B in Medium SES neighborhood. The 22 schools were chosen selectively and can be consider exemplary schools. In School A and B, 140 students took one of the Biology and Chemistry achievement tests. 59 chemistry students, 81 biology an additional 103 students from other comparable high schools took the same tests (38 chemistry, 65 biol)

Results:
As compared to teaching in traditional classes that used nationwide standardized achievement tests, teaching, in high school chemistry and biology in Israel, using alternative, embedded assessments and teaching methods more consistent with the US national standards, led to higher achievement on an evaluator constructed achievement test that assessed both lower level (more memory/comprehension) and higher level (more problem-solving) use of knowledge. The effects were bigger on higher-level knowledge assessments

Description of Strategy:
This study compared classes in Israel taught using standardized matriculation examinations versus schools that used alternative embedded assessment methods.

NSES:

Grade Levels:
9-12

Rating:
4

Study:
Hewson & Hewson.

Effect of instruction on using students' prior knowledge and conceptual change strategies on science learning.

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science_9-12_26

Strategy:
Conceptual Change

Subjects:
Black high school students in South Africa
90 students, male and female, 13-20 years
Mixed abilities, various ethnic groups
44 - Control
46 - Experimental

Results:
This study provides evidence that using instructional strategies incorporating students' prior knowledge (alternative conceptions) results in improved understanding of science concepts. The experimental group achieved significantly greater positive change scores than the control group on the subtest for the three scientific conceptions as a result of instruction.

Description of Strategy:
Conceptual Change. Instructional materials were developed using students’ prior knowledge and instructional strategies suggested by principles of conceptual change.

Topics:
•

NSES:

Grade Levels:
9-12
Applies also to 5-8

Rating:
4

Study:
Musheno & Lawson.

Effects of learning cycle and traditional text on comprehension of science concepts by students at differing reasoning levels.

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science_9-12_29

Strategy:
Learning cycle

Subjects:
This study involved one hundred twenty three high school students from two suburban schools. School one involved 58 10th-grade students (30 girls and 28 boys) with about 45% minority and 20% low income. School two involved 65 9th grade students with 17% minority and no low income.

Results:
Overall, students who read the learning cycle text passages scored higher on concept comprehension than student show read the traditional text passages. The learning cycle passage was rated easier to understand and also easier to remember.

Description of Strategy:
This study compared student comprehension and understanding of text material based on the learning cycle with text having the same number of words but sequenced in a traditional manner. Comparisons were made with students having different reasoning levels.

NSES:

Grade Levels:
9-12

Rating:
4

Study:
Norris & Phillips.

Interpreting pragmatic meaning when reading popular reports of science.

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science_9-12_30

Strategy:
Interpreting the pragmatic meaning of science reports

Subjects:
Ninety-one volunteer Grade 12 science students, 46 male, 45 female, in a school in northeast Canada, each enrolled in at least one senior course in biology, chemistry or physics, and who, on average, had completed at least four science courses.

Results:
Students held a bias that skewed their interpretations of the expressed degree of certainty of statements towards being more certain than the authors had intended. Fewer than half the students correctly interpreted statements that required a semantic or logical connection to be made to other statements. There is large difference in the ability of students to infer the role of statements in the chain of reasoning in reports and their ability to interpret the scientific status of statements taken one at a time.

Description of Strategy:
Students were required to interpret the pragmatic meaning of science reports, that is, the meaning of the reports in relation to the goal and interventions of the authors and the context set by the reports.

Topics:
• Reading, writing, speaking in science

NSES:

Grade Levels:
9-12

Rating:
4

Study:
Purser & Renner.

Results of two tenth-grade biology teaching procedures.

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science_9-12_31

Strategy:
Concrete (learning cycle) compared to formal (exposition) instruction

Subjects:
Ninth and tenth grade senior high school biology students from a small-sized western US city.

Results:
Data from achievement tests indicated that concrete operational and transitional students achieved significantly more when concrete biology concepts were taught using concrete instruction. Formal biology concepts taught using either method produced little understanding. Concrete operational and transition-to-formal thinking students in the concrete instruction group gained more in intellectual development than their counterparts in the formal instruction group.

Description of Strategy:
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects that concrete (learning cycle) and formal (exposition) instruction had on students of varying intellectual development in learning concrete and formal biology concepts.

NSES:

Grade Levels:
9-12

Rating:
4

Strategy:
Cooperative Learning, Competitive, and Individualistic Learning

Subjects:
44 ninth grade students

Results:
Students scored higher under the cooperative learning strategy that competitive or individualistic. Students in the cooperative learning group were more interested in the subject.

Description of Strategy:
Cooperative Learning, Competitive, and Individualistic Learning

Topics:
•

NSES:

Grade Levels:
9-12

Rating:
4

Strategy:
Computer modeling

Subjects:
165 tenth grade students

Results:
Students in the experimental group using the Computer Molecular Modeling program scored significantly higher on knowledge of molecular structure and bonding, spatial ability, perceptions of the model concept, and understanding of new concepts related to geometric and symbolic representations.

Description of Strategy:
Computer modeling vs. two-dimensional drawings and rigid plastic models to teach molecular structure.

Topics:
•

NSES:

Grade Levels:
9-12

Rating:
4

Strategy:
Three phase learning cycle

Subjects:
62 high school physics students

Results:
Students’ content knowledge was not significantly higher for students with the learning cycle, but the students who were taught with the learning cycle had more positive attitudes and were more confident in their ability. Some data indicated that retention was improved with the use of the learning cycle.

Description of Strategy:
Three phase learning cycle

Topics:
•

NSES:

Grade Levels:
9-12

Rating:
4

Description of Strategy:
Effect of cumulative writing and planning sequences on students’ conceptual learning

Topics:
• Reading, writing, speaking in science

NSES:

Grade Levels:
9-12

Rating:
4

Strategy:
Form & function analogy boxes

Subjects:
32 tenth grade students in high need rural high school; mixed ability

Results:
As ES of 1.36 showed that the use of form and function analogy boxes significantly improved student performance when compared to traditional lecture and worksheet instruction.

Description of Strategy:
Form & function analogy boxes

Topics:
•

NSES:

Grade Levels:
9-12

Rating:
4

Strategy:
Wait time

Subjects:
100 + elementary students and 22 high school and college students

Results:
Planned longer wait-times increased student behaviors that promoted students asking questions about relationships among natural phenomenon and looking for answers (inquiry). This teacher behavior of increased wait time would be desirable in inquiry-based classrooms and would likely increase students’ opportunity to learn.

Description of Strategy:
Wait time: time period after the teacher asks a question and the time period after a student responds

Topics:
•

NSES:

Grade Levels:
9-12
Also applies to elementary and college levels

Rating:
4

Strategy:
Cooperative Learning

Subjects:
209 introductory college physics students

esults:
Better problem solutions emerged from students who worked in cooperative groups than were achieved by individuals working alone. The mean group problem solving achievement was greater than that of the best student problem solver in the group.

Description of Strategy:
Cooperative Learning; influence of mixed ability cooperative groups on problem solving performance.

Topics:
•

NSES:

Grade Levels:
9-12

Rating:
4

Strategy:
Computer-assisted instruction

Subjects:
347 tenth grade Taiwanese earth science students

Results:
The student achievement was not statistically different, but students who were more constructivist oriented preferred the self-paced approach, while those who were less constructivist oriented preferred the teacher supported approach.

Description of Strategy:
Two groups of students were provided the same software program to learn the earth science content. One group had a teacher-centered computer assisted instruction that included class presentations, interactive discussions and classroom activities along with the software. The other group was based on students’ self-paced learning. Activities and assignments were the same.

Strategy:
Inquiry-type laboratory activities versus traditional-type chemistry laboratories

Subjects:
111 twelfth grade chemistry students in Israel

Results:
Students in the inquiry group asked many more high level type questions than students in the control group. ES = 2.34. There were no significant differences in the number of low level questions generated by the two groups.

Description of Strategy:
A two phase inquiry model was used with the experimental group. This model consisted of the pre-inquiry phase where students conduct an experiment based on specific instructions followed by the second phase where students are involved in more open-ended type experiences.

Strategy:
Dialogic discussion

Subjects:
1 teacher, 18 students - 1 Black male, 6 White male students,
11 White female students - Middle SES
Year II Honors English class

Results:
Results indicated that the teacher struggles in making the transition from "teacher-fronted" discussion to dialogic discussion. Consequently, students did not transition easily into the role of instigators of the discussion. Although such discussion is thought to engage students in critical thinking and questioning that results in developing meaningful understanding, long-term intense professional development would be necessary for this intervention to be successful.

Strategy:
Computer-assisted instruction

Subjects:
244 tenth-grade Taiwan senior high-school students. 6 groups of about 40 students each; total of 82 females and 112 males.

Results:
Students in the experimental teacher-centered approach groups scored significantly higher on an academic achievement test than the student-centered comparison groups. The experimental groups also scored significantly higher on the knowledge and application subtests than the comparison groups.

Description of Strategy:
This study examined the comparative effect of a teacher-centered and a student-centered approach to teaching about earth science concepts using computer-assisted instruction.

Strategy:
Impact of problem-solving approach, computer simulated experiment, or a conventional approach

Subjects:
200 chemistry ninth-grade students in a secondary school in Turkey

Results:
Effect size on

Students' academic achievement and science process skills improved significantly with the problem solving model and the computer simulation experiment when compared to the conventional approach. Student attitudes were significantly more positive with the computer-simulated experiment.

Description of Strategy:
This study was designed to determine the impact of three instructional models in chemistry classes. Students in the study were taught by problem-solving approach, computer simulated experiment, or a conventional approach.

Description of Strategy:
This study was designed to determine the impact of computer instruction on achievement and attitudes of students in biology classes. The intervention involved the use of microcomputers to expand, enrich and supplement the laboratory and lecture components of a traditional biology course.

Study:
Lazarouwitz and Huppert.

Science process skills of 10th-grade biology students in a computer-assisted learning setting.

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science_9-12_14