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Regarding Scientifically Based Research Studies   The purpose of the Content Network's review tables is to organize the review teams' information regarding science research studies. The tables are works in progress; editing is in progress to streamline the data presention, and review teams are analyzing additional studies for inclusion. The table includes links to the teams' original reviews; the links are in column 1, and the original reviews are MS Word documents.

Science Topics and National Science Education Standards (NSES)  In column 4 the Content Network reviewers identify the science pedagogy topics and National Science Education Standards applicable to each study.

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Reviewers' Ratings of Research   As explained in the Science Summary page, selection of research for this database has emphasized studies meeting the definition of quality research as outlined in the federal No Child Lift Behind legislation. Remember that ratings in column 4 apply to the research design, not to the quality of the intervention studied or how powerful the method, strategy, or approach is in influencing overall student achievement. Rating levels, as illustrated by the Gold Standard pyramid, are further defined on the Definitions page.

The following rows of summaries are listed in this order:
  • First, by rating (e.g., Gold Standard)
  • Next, by filename (lowest first)
  • Last, meta-analyses

Strategy:
Science content reading to facilitate applied comprehension skills

Subjects:
Fourth grade students in large urban school district in Florida - control and treatment students were chosen from demographically comparable schools (i.e. similar prior standardized test achievement, at grade level, ethnicity, housing quality in attendance areas).

Results
Students in the treatment group significantly out performed students in the control group. Treatment students significantly increased scores on standardized test achievement, but also displayed a more positive attitude toward science and reading, and greater self-confidence in learning science.

Description of Strategy:
An integrated curriculum strategy emphasizing science process skills and hands-on activities expanded the time allocated for in-depth science instruction by replacing a district-adopted basal reading program with science content reading to facilitate applied comprehension skills. The study investigated the combined effect of these curricular components on student achievement, attitudes, and self-confidence in reading and science.

Strategy:   Science, Technology, and Children (STC)

Subjects:
This study compared 8% of the 5th graders in Michigan (those experiencing the STC program) with the total public school population of Michigan 5th graders. Schools the students attended which used STC were grouped into three SES: high socioeconomic status, moderate and low.

Results:
While the mean increase in fifth grade science test scores increased in Michigan by 2.82%, the mean increase of those districts using STC ranged from 1.06 to 6.48%. Ten of the 15 districts using STC experienced student achievement that was increasing faster than the state at large. This increase was present in wealthy suburban, small-town schools, moderate SES and the rural poor but was more evidenced in higher SES districts.

Strategy:
Kit-based science modules

Subjects:
The Valle Imperial Project in Science (VIPS) involved about 22,500 K-6 students, 1100 teachers and 14 school districts in Imperial County, California. Many residents in Imperial County live in extreme poverty. 81% are Hispanic, 5% African-American, 11% Caucasian, 1% Asian, and 1% Native American. More than 50% of the students are LEP, with 10% children of migrant workers. This study was limited to 630 grade 4 students and 638 grade 6 students from the El Centro Elementary School District, the largest district in Imperial County.

Description of Strategy:
This study compared a kit-based science program with a science notebook/journal component with a traditional science textbook program.

Strategy:
Literature-based program

Subjects:
There were 128 participants (68 girls, 60 boys) from six third-grade classes that included children from ethnically diverse backgrounds. The classes were heterogeneously grouped according to achievement with approximately one-fourth in each class considered at risk. Twenty-eight percent of the students were on free lunch. The socioeconomic status ranged from disadvantaged to middle class.

Results
Children in the literature-only group scored statistically significantly better on all literacy measures, except for the standardized reading test, than children in the control group. Many more children indicated they liked science in the literature-science group than either the control or the literature-only group. Observational data collected during periods of independent reading and writing, when children interacted in social setting or selected their own books to read indicated the 95% of the selection of science trade books took place in the literature-science group.

Description of Strategy:
This study is intended to determine the impact of a literature-based program, which is integrated into literacy and science instruction, on achievement, use of literature, and attitudes toward the literacy and science program.

Strategy:
Computer-based knowledge mapping

Subjects:
Subjects involved were fifty-two 10 and 11-year old students, (22 boys, 30 girls) in two intact classrooms in an urban elementary school. Ethnicity and economic status were mixed and equivalent in each classroom. No significant differences between classes in terms of achievement and other academic indicators.

Description of Strategy:
General: To investigate how computer-based knowledge mapping could be used simultaneously as in instructional tool and an assessment tool in a classroom setting.
Specific: Will the repeated use of concept mapping software support and facilitate the development of scientific and principled understandings?

Strategy:
Einstein project.

Subjects:
Ten 3rd grade classrooms from the Einstein Project were selected.
Five classes had the STC Curriculum and five had a traditional elementary science program.
Common content areas - Plants, Rocks, Sound.

Description of Strategy:
This study examined the effectiveness of a traditional textbook program versus a kit-based program.

Strategy:
Use of science kits and science notebooks

Subjects:
615 fourth grade students and 635 sixth grade students

Description of Strategy:
In this study, a district with a high proportion of ELL students implemented a research-based kit-based science program with a substantial science notebook (journal) component. The integrity of the implementation was assured through a long term commitment to professional development.

Topics:
• Program
• Reading , Writing, & Speaking in Science

NSES: Science as Inquiry: Abilities Necessary to do Inquiry, Life Science, Physical Science, Earth & Space Science

Grade Levels:
4 and 6

Also applies to 5-8 level

Rating: 4

Strategy:
Analogies

Subjects:
126 students in grades 3-6; all students reading at or above grade level

Description of Strategy:
Instructional analogies were used to teach science concepts. In the analogy, the science concept the students were learning was explicitly compared to a more familiar topic.

Topics:
• Conceptual Change

NSES: Life Science

Grade Levels:
3-6

Also applies to 5-8 level

Rating: 4

Strategy:
Supported Inquiry Science (SIS) vs. Activity-based science (ABS

Subjects:
172 fourth grade students; ethnically and economically diverse; 33 of 172 with learning disabilities

Strategy:
Supported Inquiry Science (SIS) vs. Activity-based science (ABS)

Results:
LD and non LD students performed significantly better on measures of science concepts and science processes in the treatment group (SIS) than in the control group. The SIS approach included teacher guided processing for meaning with attention to the learners’ misconceptions. The ES for all students with SIS approach was 1.53 and ES for the LD students was 1.59.

Description of Strategy:
A hands-on science program with a conceptual-change orientation was implemented

Topics:
• Inquiry
• Program
• Conceptual Change

NSES: Science as Inquiry, Physical Science: Light, heat, electricity and magnetism

Grade Levels:
4
Diverse learners

Rating: 4

Strategy:
Wait time

Subjects:
100 + elementary students and 22 high school and college students

Description of Strategy:
Wait time: time period after the teacher asks a question and the time period after a student responds

Topics:
• Inquiry

NSES: Science as Inquiry

Grade Levels:
elementary

Also in study:
9-12 and college levels

Rating: 4

Added June 06

Study:
Novak, Joseph D.,Musonda, Dismas

A twelve-year longitudinal study of science concept learning

Read full review

science_k-4_19

Strategy:
Audio-tutorial lessons to guide hands-on activities in first and second grade

Subjects:
191 first and second grade students received the treatment over two years and 48 first and second grade students did not and served as control. Students were from middle to upper class semi-rural northeastern college town.

Results:
The data shows the lasting impact of early instruction in science and the value of concept maps as a representational tool for cognitive development changes. This study suggests that quality science instruction in grades one and two can have a discernible influence on science learning throughout the school years. The treatment group showed many more valid conceptions and many fewer invalid conceptions over the 12 year study period.

Topics:
Concept Mapping;
Conceptual Change

NSES:
Physical Science

Grades:

Rating: 4

All grades

Added June 06

Study:
Marek, Edmund, Methven, Susan

Effects of the learning cycle upon student and classroom teacher performance.

Read full review

science_k-4_21

Strategy:
Learning Cycle

Subjects:
Randomly selected elementary students from 16 teachers inserviced in the learning cycle instructional model and 11 matched control teachers.

Results:
Significantly greater gains in conservation reasoning and language usage with students in the learning cycle classrooms over the expository classrooms.

Topics:
Inquiry;
Learning Cycle

NSES:
Science as Inquiry

Grades:

Rating: 4

Added June 21, 06

Study:
Novak, Joseph

Results and implications of a 12-year longitudinal study of science concept learning.

Read full review

science_k-4_23

Strategy:
Long term impact of audio tutorial lessons in grades 1-2 on conceptual understanding years later in grades, 2, 7, 10, and 12.

Subjects:
191 grade 1 students in initial treatment group; students were followed in grade 2(156), grade 7, and grade 12 (85)

Results:
The mean valid notions of the instructed students increased over the years and the invalid notions decreased. When students began their formal study of science in grade 7, both instructed and uninstructed students improved in their understanding of energy and molecular kinetics concepts, but a highly statistically significant (p less than >001) superiority of instructed students compared with uninstructed students was evident, both for valid and invalid ideas. The data clearly support the earlier introduction of science instruction on more abstract concepts.

Topics:
• Conceptual Change
• Concept Mapping

NSES: Physical Science: Properties and changes of properties in matter, Transfer of energy

Grade Levels:
K-12

Rating: 4

Strategy:
Two hundred fifty seven children in grades 2-5 which served two middle to upper-middle, class elementary schools in a suburb of Birmingham, Alabama.

Subjects:
Two hundred fifty seven children in grades 2-5 which served two middle to upper-middle, class elementary schools in a suburb of Birmingham, Alabama.

Results
A majority of students could not solve these tasks until fourth grade. This study suggests comparison of volume concepts may not be appropriate being introduced at the second grade and that the units of measurement, that are expected by the NCTM Principles and Standards by Grade 2, are not realistic.

Description of Strategy:
This study used two different approaches to demonstrate that the grade level in which a majority of students can make volume comparisons needs to be recognized prior to teaching the concept. One was a transitivity task: using a third container to compare volumes of popcorn in two different containers. The other was a unit-iteration task: using small cups and a pan to compare volumes of rice in two differently shaped containers.

Strategy:
Increased wait-time and cognitive level of questioning

Subjects:
129 grade 2-5 students

Results:
Students in the long wait time (5 seconds) groups scored significantly higher on the achievement test than the students in the medium (3 seconds) and short wait time (1 second) groups. Students in the medium wait time group scored significantly higher than student in the short wait time group.

Description of Strategy:
The teachers taught from scripted lessons containing specific questions and wait time.

Topics:
•

NSES: NA

Grade Levels:
2-5

Also applies to 5-8 level

Rating: 3

Strategy:
Hands-on alone vs. hands-on with instructional conversation

Subjects:
113 students aged 5-6 years representing a range of ability levels and SES.

Description of Strategy:

Topics:
• Reading, writing, speaking in science
• Conceptual Change

NSES: Physical Science: Motions & Forces

Grade Levels:
ages 5-6

Rating: 3

Strategy:
Effect of mainstreaming on cognitive and social skills of deaf children

Subjects:
21 legally deaf students aged 10-13 in grades 1-4.

Description of Strategy:
This study looked at the effect on student learning when students were taught in a resource class with others who have the same cognitive limitations versus being taught with the general student population.

Topics:
• Inquiry

NSES: Science as Inquiry

Grade Levels:
1-4
Diverse Learners

Rating: 3

Strategy:
Conceptual Change teaching strategies

Subjects:
68 ten year olds

Description of Strategy:
Three instructional approaches were studied: 1. provide conceptual structure prior to lesson, 2. withhold conceptual structure, 3. combined approach.

Topics:
• Conceptual Change

NSES: Science as Inquiry, Life Science, Physical Science, Earth & Space Science

Grade Levels:
10 year olds

Rating: 3

Strategy:
Parent Involvement in PALS program

Subjects:
15 grades 1-2 classrooms

Results:
Results indicated that family involvement can be achieved by designing meaningful time efficient and worthwhile take home science activities And that PALS students perceived their teachers, parents, instruction and science more positively than non-PALS students.

Strategy:
The strategy in this innovative study was to substantively involve parents in their child’s learning of science. This was done by preparing activity bags, each containing a fictional trade book having a science connection, questions for parents to discuss with their child and related materials for an investigation. The take home packs were related to the content being studied in the classroom. Parents and children read the stories and did the activities together.

Strategy:
Instructional congruence framework that articulates academic disciplines with students’ cultural and linguistic experiences to make academic content and process accessible, relevany and meaningful for these students.

Subjects:
1523 third and fourth grade students in an urban school district. Ethnically diverse, low SES and 25% LEP

Results:
On a variety of measures of science achievement and several measures of literacy achievement the mean scores between pre and post tests indicated statistically significant increases on all measures of science and literacy at both grade levels.

Description of Strategy:
The instructional congruence in this study involves these three domains of intervention: science knowledge, English language and literacy, and students’ home language and culture. The intervention consisted of: instructional units, teacher workshops, and teachers’ classroom practices

Strategy:
Knowledge Mapping

Subjects:
Participants were fifty-six 4th and 5th grade science students of mixed ethnicity and socioeconomic status. All students attended a university laboratory school in Los Angeles and were from two separate classes of the same instructor. Students were equivalent in achievement and other academic indicators and did not have prior mapping experience.

Results:
Analysis of students ‘work showed that in the majority of cases, knowledge mapping seems to accurately assess students’ scientific understanding but in some cases, it may underestimate their knowledge. Results correlated more closely with the essay test results than the results from the multiple-choice test.

Strategy:
The design of this research involved having experts develop knowledge maps over concepts taught to fourth and fifth graders. The students then developed their own knowledge maps online over the same topics. Their maps were evaluated and compared to the "expert" using a match-to-expert algorithm

Strategy: "The Kids as Global Scientists: Weather” (KGS)

Subjects:
From a group of 258 classroom settings with approximately 240 teachers and 10,861 fourth- to eighth-grade students from 40 states, six local sixth-grade teachers in the Detroit (Michigan) public schools (DPS) were selected for this study. The district serves 95% minority students of whom more than 70% are eligible for free or reduced-price lunches. Students in the experimental schools reflected larger district trends. The teachers varied in background from one year in the system to 3 having 25 years experience.

Results:
Despite many barriers to the use of technology in these classrooms the program was implemented and the overall student gains in science content and science inquiry were significant at the 0.001 level.

Description of Strategy:
The strategies employed in this investigation involve students in data collection, data comparison and critique, explanation building, communication of ideas, and real-time predictions. Students investigate questions of their own design. The student activities are based on the program "The Kids as Global Scientists: Weather” (KGS). Students are involved in interactions with fellow students and online with scientists.

Strategy:
Constructivist inquiry-based classroom environment and predictors of success

Subjects:
75 grades 1-6 students; 24 were normally achieving and 51 were identified as having high incidence disabilities

Description of Strategy:
Students participated in a constructivist-based density activity. Researchers asked questions to ascertain preconceptions and to guide students’ thinking during the activity.

Topics:
• Inquiry
• Conceptual Change

NSES: Science as Inquiry, Physical Science: Properties and changes in properties of matter, Motions and Forces

Grade Levels:
1-6
Diverse Learners
Also applies to 5-8 level

Rating: 3

Study:
Yore, Craig, & Maguire.

Index of science reading awareness: an interactive-constructive model, test verification, and grades 4-8 results.

Read full review

science_5-8_14

Strategy:
Clarify metacognitive awareness

Subjects:
School district: British Columbia, 5 schools.
532 students in grades 4 - 8: 261 females, 271 males.
Wide range SES.

Description of Strategy:
This study attempted to clarify the concept of metacognitive awareness of science reading, science text and science reading strategies.

Strategy: Inductive Approach

Subjects:
Studies included those in grade levels 4-6, 7-9, 10 -12. Studies ranged from random selection of students to similar groupings, urban settings to low SES, small and large classes, etc.

Results
The inductive approach seems more justified for middle school students. It also seems to be more useful in those situations where high levels of thought, learning experiences, and outcome demands are placed upon the subjects. The inductive approach appears to function better when the curriculum organization is formulated across units to involve the complete program.

Description of Strategy:
This is a meta-analysis of 39 studies spanning 1957-1980. These studies looked at inductive (examples, observations, and experiments done prior to forming conclusions) vs. deductive teaching (formulating generalizations prior to illustrative examples) approaches.

Strategy:
IDEAS model

Subjects:
Multicultural urban school system - wide range of ability levels, ethnicity, parental income

Description of Strategy:
This paper is a research summary of research findings and policy implications over a 5-year period. The implementation of the IDEAS model focused on replacing the time allocated for traditional reading/language arts instruction with a daily 2-hour block dedicated to in depth science concept instruction (e.g. concept-focused teaching, hands-on activities, extensive utilization of science process skills, enhanced reading of trade science materials, concept map construction, journal writing).

Topics:
• Reading, writing, speaking in science

NSES:
Science as Inquiry, Life Science, Physical Science, Earth & Space Science

Grade Levels:
elementary

Rating:
meta-analysis

Strategy:
This study looks at the collective results of 57 studies of three activity-based elementary science programs.

Subjects:
This is a meta-analysis of 57 studies including 900 elementary classrooms and 13,000 students.

Description of Strategy:
Activity-based science

Added June 06

Study:
Shepardson, Daniel P., Britsch, Susan J.

An investigation of the effectiveness of concept mapping as an instructional tool.

Read full review

science_k-4_18

Strategy: Use of science journals

Subjects: 18 kindergarten and 24 fourth grade students from high to mid SEC in mid-western university community

Results: Studying student journals provide insight into how teachers should employ this strategy in their classrooms. The study found that learners recontextualize their understandings of the science investigation and phenomena by using three types of mental constructs: imaginary, experienced, and investigative. The role of the journals in the science curriculum can be enhanced and elaborated if journals allow children to use various child selected combinations of writing and drawing to construct and represent their understanding.

Topics:
Reading, Writing & Speaking in Science: Writing to Learn;
Conceptual Change

NSES:
Science as Inquiry;
Physical Science;
Life Science,
Earth Science

Grades:
K-4

Rating: NA
meta-analysis

Added June 06

Study:
Horton, Phillip, et.al

An investigation of the effectiveness of concept mapping as an instructional tool.

Read full review

science_k-4_20

Strategy: Concept Mapping

Subjects: Meta-analysis of 18 concept mapping studies: elementary, middle, high school, and college.

Results: Concept mapping improved student achievement and attitudes. It made little difference whether the concept map is teacher-prepared or student-prepared. Effect sizes for achievement gains in the 18 studies ranged from a low of .27 to 1.00 and for attitude measures, from .19 to 2.95.

Topics:
Concept mapping,
Conceptual Change

NSES: --

Grades:
All grades

Rating:
NA
meta-analysis

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